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State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism conducted by a state against foreigners or against its own people.〔〔Seldin & So, 2003: (p. 4 )〕〔Martin, 2006: p. 111〕 ==Definition== There is neither an academic nor an international legal consensus regarding the proper definition of the word "terrorism". Many scholars believe that the actions of governments can be labeled "terrorism". For example, using the term 'terrorism' to mean violent action used with the predominant intention of causing terror, Paul James and Jonathan Friedman distinguish between state terrorism against non-combatants and state terrorism against combatants, including 'Shock and Awe' tactics: "Shock and Awe" as a subcategory of "rapid dominance" is the name given to massive intervention designed to strike terror into the minds of the enemy. It is a form of state-terrorism. The concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. However, others, including governments, international organizations, private institutions and scholars, believe that the term is only applicable to the actions of violent non-state actors. Historically, the term terrorism was used to refer to actions taken by governments against their own citizens whereas now it is more often perceived as targeting of non-combatants as part of a strategy directed ''against'' governments. Historian Henry Commager wrote that "Even when definitions of terrorism allow for ''state terrorism'', state actions in this area tend to be seen through the prism of war or national self-defense, not terror.” While states may accuse other states of state-sponsored terrorism when they support insurgencies, individuals who accuse their governments of terrorism are seen as radicals, because actions by legitimate governments are not generally seen as illegitimate. Academic writing tends to follow the definitions accepted by states.〔Donahue, pp. 19-20〕 Most states use the term "terrorism" for non-state actors only. The Encyclopædia Britannica Online defines terrorism generally as "the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective", and states that "terrorism is not legally defined in all jurisdictions." The encyclopedia adds that "()stablishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism, is employed by governments -- or more often by factions within governments -- against that government's citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups."〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Terrorism )〕 While the most common modern usage of the word terrorism refers to civilian-victimizing political violence by insurgents or conspirators,〔"Dealing with Terrorism", by Helen Purkitt, in Conflict in World Society, 1984, p. 162.〕 several scholars make a broader interpretation of the nature of terrorism that encompasses the concepts of state terrorism and state-sponsored terrorism.〔Michael Stohl, p. 14〕 Michael Stohl argues, "The use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents.〔''The Superpowers and International Terror'' Michael Stohl, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Atlanta, March 27-April 1, 1984).〕 Stohl clarifies, however, that "()ot all acts of state violence are terrorism. It is important to understand that in terrorism the violence threatened or perpetrated, has purposes broader than simple physical harm to a victim. The audience of the act or threat of violence is more important than the immediate victim."〔Stohl, National Interests and State Terrorism, The Politics of Terrorism, Marcel Dekker 1988, p.275〕 Scholar Gus Martin describes state terrorism as terrorism "committed by governments and quasi-governmental agencies and personnel against perceived threats", which can be directed against both domestic and foreign targets.〔 Noam Chomsky defines state terrorism as "terrorism practised by states (or governments) and their agents and allies". Jeffrey A. Sluka has described Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman as pioneers in academic studies about state terrorism.〔Sluka, 2000: p.8〕 Stohl and George A. Lopez have designated three categories of state terrorism, based on the openness/secrecy with which the alleged terrorist acts are performed, and whether states directly perform the acts, support them, or acquiesce to them.〔Stohl & Lopez, 1988: pp. 207-208〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「State terrorism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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